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Source: http://rss.slashdot.org/~r/Slashdot/slashdotScience/~3/YhPxutgfcQ0/story01.htm
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B.Ed OPTIONAL COURSE
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE ? I
UNIT I Place, Goals and Objectives of Biology
Biology in the school curriculum ? its claims for inclusion ? Interdisciplinary approaches in the school curriculum ? Various branches related to Life Science.
Goals and objectives of teaching Biology with reference to Bloom?s taxonomy- Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor Domains. Aims of teaching Biology at different levels ? Primary, Secondary and Higher Secondary.
Biology in the school curriculum
??????????? Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. Among the most important topics are five unifying principles that can be said to be the fundamental axioms of modern biology:
What is science?
??????????? The word "science" probably brings to mind many different pictures: a fat textbook, white lab coats and microscopes, an astronomer peering through a telescope, a naturalist in the rainforest, Einstein's equations scribbled on a chalkboard, the launch of the space shuttle, bubbling beakers ?. All of those images reflect some aspect of science, but none of them provides a full picture because science has so many facets:
Science is complex and multi-faceted, but the most important characteristics of science are straightforward:
??????????? Too many, science may seem like an arcane, ivory-towered institution ? but that impression is based on a misunderstanding of science. In fact:
Definitions of Science
????????? sci?ence
1.????? A branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws: the mathematical sciences.
2. Systematic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation ?? ????????????????????????????????????????????and experimentation.
4. systematized knowledge in general.
5. Knowledge, as of facts or principles; knowledge gained by systematic study.
6. A particular branch of knowledge.
7. Skill, especially reflecting a precise application of facts or principles; proficiency.
Definitions by goal and process
?2. The organized body of knowledge that is derived from such observations and that can be verified or tested by further investigation.
?3. any specific branch of this general body of knowledge, such as biology, physics, geology, or astronomy.
Academic Press Dictionary of Science & Technology
?????????? Science is an intellectual activity carried on by humans that is designed to discover information about the natural world in which humans live and to discover the ways in which this information can be organized into meaningful patterns. A primary aim of science is to collect facts (data). An ultimate purpose of science is to discern the order that exists between and amongst the various facts.??????????? Science involves more than the gaining of knowledge. It is the systematic and organized inquiry into the natural world and its phenomena. Science is about gaining a deeper and often useful understanding of the world.
The Nature of Normal Science
?
?????????? Normal science is the practice of gaining knowledge by using some paradigm. It therefore has a perspective, common rules, facts, and problems. Its task is to solidify, reify, and articulate the paradigm; quantify its predictions, extend it to new areas, and to develop the technology needed. It rejects the approbations of the lay. It does not attempt to answer all problems. It uses facts considered revealing to solve problems considered acute by the paradigm. It is to articulate accepted phenomena. Problems must be challenging but not hopeless. Frequently the paradigm and its rules are tacit, they cannot be articulated. The adequacy of a paradigm is judged by peers not lay.??????????? Normal science is the finding of previously unpredicted phenomena and showing how that phenomenon is explainable with the existing paradigm. Finding unexplainable phenomena is not science; anyone can be capable of not explaining something. Brain damage helps enormously. Normal science does not produce new phenomena; it articulates those that the paradigm supplies. Extending the paradigm (showing how the paradigm explains previously unexplainable events) is mopping up and is where most scientists spend their lives.
??????????? A paradigm gains status because it handles problems that practitioners feel are important - not because it handles all problems.
??????????? 1. Empirical work to articulate paradigm or theory. Determinants of physical constants / quantitative laws / determination of way to apply paradigm to new situation.
??????????? 2. Facts without intrinsic interest which can be compared to predictions from the paradigm.
??????????? 3. Class of facts that the paradigm has shown to be revealing of nature. To desert the paradigm is to cease practicing the science it defines. The task is to explain current problems with rules such that the majority of past findings are consistent, somewhat like a judge trying to be consistent with precedent, or trying to minimize sum of squared differences when determining a regression line.
Fact
? ???????? ?1. ?Something that actually exists; reality; truth: Your fears have no basis in fact.
??????????? ?2. Something known to exist or to have happened: Space travel is now a fact.
3. A truth known by actual experience or observation; something known to be true: ???Scientists gather facts about plant growth.
4. Something said to be true or supposed to have happened: The facts given by the witness are highly questionable.
5. Law often, facts an actual or alleged event or circumstance, as distinguished from its legal effect or consequence. Compare question of fact, question of law.There are four types of fact. The first type of fact cannot be proved by the experiments as we wish. We have to see this fact when it happens. The second type of fact can be seen and shown at any time. The third type of fact is the generalization i.e. one fact is associating with another fact. The fourth type is a theory but it is treated as fact because of the evidences to prove the theory.
BIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
??????????? When we say science we know pretty well that includes not only physics and chemistry but also Biology. We can give three reasons to prove that Biology is also a science. They are:
1.????? Biology possesses the characters of other branches of science like practical, experiments, data and utility for the life. We know that all the three branches of science possess all these qualities. Biology also gives the same benefits to the society as the other branches.
2.????? Biology gives a complete and notable knowledge like other branches of science. We know that physics deals with instruments and equipments, chemistry deals with chemical substances and their combinations and biology deals with living organisms. So it gives a complete notable knowledge about living organisms.
3.????? Biology gives extra training in the scientific method. We know that scientific method is a method followed by scientists to develop science. While physics and chemistry gives training to the pupil in this method, Biology is expected to give extra training in this method. This is because it deals with living organisms and they have to face complex problems in their life. The pupils are expected to adopt the scientific method in order to find how the living organisms overcome the complex problems. So they get extra training in the scientific method by studying Biology. Because of these three reasons Biology is considered as science along with other branches of science. ?
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING BIOLOGY WITH REFERENCE TO BLOOM?S TAXONOMY
??????????? Bloom's Taxonomy, (in full: 'Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains', or strictly speaking: Bloom's 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives') was initially (the first part) published in 1956 under the leadership of American academic and educational expert Dr Benjamin S Bloom. 'Bloom's Taxonomy' was originally created in and for an academic context, (the development commencing in 1948), when Benjamin Bloom chaired a committee of educational psychologists, based in American education, whose aim was to develop a system of categories of learning behaviour to assist in the design and assessment of educational learning. Bloom's Taxonomy has since been expanded over many years by Bloom and other contributors (notably Anderson and Krathwhol as recently as 2001, whose theories extend Bloom's work to far more complex levels than are explained here, and which are more relevant to the field of academic education than to corporate training and development).
??????????? Most corporate trainers and HR professionals, coaches and teachers, will benefit significantly by simply understanding the basics of Bloom's Taxonomy, as featured below. (If you want to know more, there is a vast amount of?related reading and references, listed at the end of this summary explanation.)
Bloom's Taxonomy was primarily created for academic education; however it is relevant to all types of learning.
??????????? Interestingly, at the outset, Bloom believed that education should focus on 'mastery' of subjects and the promotion of higher forms of thinking, rather than a utilitarian approach to simply transferring facts. Bloom demonstrated decades ago that most teaching tended to be focused on fact-transfer and information recall - the lowest level of training - rather than true meaningful personal development, and this remains a central challenge for educators and trainers in modern times. Much corporate training is also limited to non-participative, unfeeling knowledge-transfer, (all those stultifying boring PowerPoint presentations...), which is reason alone to consider the breadth and depth approach exemplified in Bloom's model.
You might find it helpful now to see the?Bloom Taxonomy overview. Did you realize there were all these potential dimensions to training and learning?
??????????? Benjamin S Bloom (1913-99) attained degrees at Pennsylvania State University in 1935. He joined the Department of Education at the University of Chicago in 1940 and attained a PhD in Education in 1942, during which time he specialized in examining. Here he met his mentor Ralph Tyler with whom he first began to develop his ideas for developing a system (or 'taxonomy') of specifications to enable educational training and learning objectives to be planned and measured properly - improving the effectiveness of developing 'mastery' instead of simply transferring facts for mindless recall. Bloom continued to develop the Learning Taxonomy model through the 1960's, and was appointed Charles H Swift Distinguished Service Professor at Chicago in 1970. He served as adviser on education to several overseas governments including of Israel and India.
??????????? Bloom's (and his colleagues') initial attention was focused on the?'Cognitive Domain', which was the first published part of Bloom's Taxonomy, featured in the publication: 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1, The Cognitive Domain' (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, Krathwohl, 1956).
??????????? The 'Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II, The Affective Domain' (Bloom, Masia, Krathwohl) as the title implies, deals with the detail of the second domain, the?'Affective Domain', and was published in 1964.
??????????? Various people suggested detail for the third?'Psychomotor Domain', which explains why this domain detail varies in different representations of the complete Bloom Taxonomy. The three most popularly referenced versions of the Psychomotor Domain seem to be those of???? RH Dave?(1967/70),?EJ Simpson (1966/72), and?AJ Harrow?(1972).
??????????? As such 'Bloom's Taxonomy' describes the three-domain structure, within which the detail may vary, especially for the third domain.
??????????? Bloom's Taxonomy has therefore since 1956 provided a basis for ideas which have been used (and developed) around the world by academics, educators, teachers and trainers, for the preparation of learning evaluation materials, and also provided the platform for the complete 'Bloom's Taxonomy' (including the detail for the third 'Psychomotor Domain') as we see it today. Collectively these concepts which make up the whole Bloom Taxonomy continue to be useful and very relevant to the planning and design of: school, college and university education, adult and corporate training courses, teaching and lesson plans, and learning materials; they also serve as a template for the evaluation of: training, teaching, learning and development, within every aspect of education and industry.
Training or learning design and evaluation need not cover all aspects of the Taxonomy - just make sure there is coverage of the aspects that are appropriate.
??????????? As such, if in doubt about your training aims - check what's possible, and perhaps required, by referring to Bloom's Taxonomy.
Explanation of bloom's taxonomy
??????????? First, don't be put off by the language or the apparent complexity of Bloom's Taxonomy - at this basic level it's a relatively simple and logical model.
??????????? Taxonomy?means 'a set of classification principles', or 'structure', and?Domain?simply means 'category'. Bloom and his colleagues were academics, looking at learning as a behavioural science, and writing for other academics, which is why they never called it 'Bloom's Learning Structure', which would perhaps have made more sense to people in the business world. (Interestingly this example of the use of technical language provides a helpful lesson in learning itself, namely, if you want to get an idea across to people, you should try to use language that your audience will easily recognize and understand.)
??????????? Bloom's Taxonomy underpins the classical 'Knowledge, Attitude, Skills' structure of learning method and evaluation, and aside from the even simpler?Kirkpatrick learning evaluation model, Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains remains the most widely used system of its kind in education particularly, and also industry and corporate training. It's easy to see why, because it is such a simple, clear and effective model, both for explanation and application of learning objectives, teaching and training methods, and measurement of learning outcomes.
??????????? Bloom's Taxonomy provides an excellent structure for planning, designing, assessing and evaluating training and learning effectiveness. The model also serves as a sort of?checklist, by which you can ensure that training is planned to deliver all the necessary development for students, trainees or learners, and a template by which you can assess the validity and coverage of any existing training, be it a course, a curriculum, or an entire training and development programme for a large organization.
??????????? It is fascinating that Bloom's Taxonomy model (1956/64) and?Kirkpatrick's learning evaluation model (1959) remain classical reference models and tools into the 21st century. This is because concepts such as Bloom's Taxonomy, Kirkpatrick's model,?Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs,?Mcgregor's XY Theory, The?SWOT analysis?model, and?Berne's Transactional Analysis theory, to name a few other examples, are timeless, and as such will always be relevant to the understanding and development of people and organizations. Bloom?s taxonomy definitions
??????????? Bloom's Taxonomy model is in three parts, or 'overlapping domains'. Again, Bloom used rather academic language, but the meanings are simple to understand:
??????????? This has given rise to the obvious short-hand variations on the theme which summaries the three domains; for example, Skills-Knowledge-Attitude, KAS, Do-Think-Feel, etc.
??????????? Various people have since built on Bloom's work, notably in the third domain, the 'psychomotor' or skills, which Bloom originally identified in a broad sense, but which he never fully detailed. This was apparently because Bloom and his colleagues felt that the academic environment held insufficient expertise to analyze and create a suitable reliable structure for the physical ability 'Psychomotor' domain. While this might seem strange, such caution is not uncommon among expert and highly specialized academics - they strive for accuracy as well as innovation. In Bloom's case it is as well that he left a few gaps for others to complete the detail; the model seems to have benefited from having several different contributors fill in the detail over the years, such as Anderson, Krathwhol, Masia, Simpson, Harrow and Dave (these last three having each developed versions of the third 'Psychomotor' domain).
??????????? In each of the three domains Bloom's Taxonomy is based on the premise that the categories are ordered in degree of difficulty.?An important premise of Bloom's Taxonomy is that each category (or 'level') must be mastered before progressing to the next. As such the categories within each domain are levels of learning development, and these levels increase in difficulty.
??????????? The simple matrix structure enables a checklist or template to be constructed for the design of learning programmes, training courses, lesson plans, etc. Effective learning - especially in organizations, where training is to be converted into organizational results - should arguably cover all the levels of each of the domains, where relevant to the situation and the learner.
??????????? The learner should benefit from development of knowledge and intellect (Cognitive Domain); attitude and beliefs (Affective Domain); and the ability to put physical and bodily skills into effect - to act (Psychomotor Domain).
??????????? Here's a really simple adapted 'at-a-glance' representation of Bloom's Taxonomy. The definitions are intended to be simple modern day language, to assist explanation and understanding. This simple overview can help you (and others) to understand and explain the taxonomy. Refer back to it when considering and getting to grips with the detailed structures - this overview helps to clarify and distinguish the levels.
??????????? For the more precise original Bloom Taxonomy terminology and definitions see the more detailed domain structures beneath this at-a-glance model. It's helpful at this point to consider also the ?conscious competence' learning stages model, which provides a useful perspective for all three domains, and the concept of developing competence by stages in sequence.
| Cognitive | Affective | Psychomotor |
| knowledge | attitude | skills |
| 1. Recall data | 1. Imitation (copy) | |
| 2. Understand | 2. Respond (react) | 2. Manipulation (follow instructions) |
| 3. Apply (use) | 3. Value (understand and act) | 3. Develop Precision |
| 4.Analyse (structure/elements) | 4. Organize personal value system | 4.Articulation (combine, integrate related skills) |
| 5.Synthesize (create/build) | 5. Internalize value system (adopt behaviour)? | 5.Naturalization (automate, become expert) |
| 6. Evaluate (assess, judge in relational terms) |
N.B. In the Cognitive Domain, levels 5 and 6, Synthesis and Evaluation, were subsequently inverted by Anderson and Krathwhol in 2001. Anderson and Krathwhol also developed a complex two-dimensional extension of the Bloom Taxonomy, which is not explained here. If you want to learn more about the bleeding edge of academic educational learning and evaluation there is a list of further references below. For most mortals in teaching and training what's on this page is probably enough to make a start, and a big difference.
??????????????? Note also that the Psychomotor Domain featured above is based on the domain detail established by RH Dave (who was a student of Bloom) in 1967 (conference paper) and 1970 (book). The Dave model is the simplest and generally easiest to apply in the corporate development environment. Alternative Psychomotor Domains structures have been suggested by others, notably?Harrow and Simpson's models detailed below. I urge you explore the?Simpson?and?Harrow?Psychomotor Domain alternatives - especially for the development of children and young people, and for developing skills in adults that take people out of their comfort zones. This is because the Simpson and Harrow models offer different emotional perspectives and advantages, which are useful for certain learning situations, and which do not appear so obviously in the structure of the Dave model.
??????????? Bloom's Taxonomy in more detailed structure follows, with more formal terminology and definitions. Refer back to the?Bloom Taxonomy overview?any time you need to refresh or clarify your perception of the model. It is normal to find that the extra detail can initially cloud the basic structure - which is actually quite simple - so it's helpful to keep the simple overview to hand.
?Bloom?s taxonomy learning domains - detailed structures
Bloom's Taxonomy 1956 Cognitive Domain is as follows. An adjusted model was produced by Anderson and Krathwhol in 2001 in which the levels five and six (synthesis and evaluation) were inverted (reference: Anderson & Krathwhol, A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 2001). This is why you will see different versions of this Cognitive Domain model. Debate continues as to the order of levels five and six, which is interesting given that Bloom's Taxonomy states that the levels must be mastered in order.
??????????? In my humble opinion it's possible to argue either case (Synthesis then Evaluation, or vice-versa) depending on the circumstances and the precise criteria stated or represented in the levels concerned, plus the extent of 'creative thinking' and 'strategic authority' attributed to or expected at the 'Synthesis' level. In short - pick the order which suits your situation.
| cognitive domain | ||||
| ?level | category or 'level' | behaviour descriptions | examples of activity to be trained, or demonstration and evidence to be measured | 'key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level) |
| 1 | Knowledge | recall or recognise information | multiple-choice test, recount facts or statistics, recall a process, rules, definitions; quote law or procedure | arrange, define, describe, label, list, memorise, recognise, relate, reproduce, select, state |
| 2 | Comprehension | understand meaning, re-state data in one's own words, interpret, extrapolate, translate | explain or interpret meaning from a given scenario or statement, suggest treatment, reaction or solution to given problem, create examples or metaphors | explain, reiterate, reword, critique, classify, summarise, illustrate, translate, review, report, discuss, re-write, estimate, interpret, theories, paraphrase, reference, example |
| 3 | Application | use or apply knowledge, put theory into practice, use knowledge in response to real circumstances | put a theory into practical effect, demonstrate, solve a problem, manage an activity | use, apply, discover, manage, execute, solve, produce, implement, construct, change, prepare, conduct, perform, react, respond, role-play |
| 4 | Analysis | interpret elements, organizational principles, structure, construction, internal relationships; quality, reliability of individual components | identify constituent parts and functions of a process or concept, or de-construct a methodology or process, making qualitative assessment of elements, relationships, values and effects; measure requirements or needs | analyze, break down, catalogue, compare, quantify, measure, test, examine, experiment, relate, graph, diagram, plot, extrapolate, value, divide |
| 5 | Synthesis (create/build) | develop?new unique structures, systems, models, approaches, ideas; creative thinking, operations | develop plans or procedures, design solutions, integrate methods, resources, ideas, parts; create teams or new approaches, write protocols or contingencies | develop, plan, build, create, design, organize, revise, formulate, propose, establish, assemble, integrate, re-arrange, modify |
| 6 | Evaluation | assess effectiveness of whole concepts, in relation to values, outputs, efficacy, viability; critical thinking, strategic comparison and review; judgement relating to external criteria | review strategic options or plans in terms of efficacy, return on investment or cost-effectiveness, practicability; assess sustainability; perform a ? SWOT analysis in relation to alternatives; produce a financial justification for a proposition or venture, calculate the effects of a plan or strategy; perform a detailed and costed risk analysis with recommendations and justifications | review, justify, assess, present a case for, defend, report on, investigate, direct, appraise, argue, project-manage |
??????????? Based on the 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1, The Cognitive Domain' (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, Krathwhol) 1956. This table is adapted and reproduced with permission from Allyn & Bacon, Boston USA, being the publishers and copyright owners of 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives' (Bloom et al 1956).
Note that levels 5 and 6, Synthesis and Evaluation, were subsequently inverted by Anderson and Krathwhol in 2001, on which point:
??????????? The question of the order of Synthesis and Evaluation is dependent upon the extent of strategic expectation and authority that is built into each, which depends on your situation. Hence it is possible to make a case for Bloom's original order shown above, or Anderson and Krathwhol version of 2001 (which simply inverts levels 5 and 6).
??????????? The above version is the original, and according to the examples and assumptions presented in the above matrix, is perfectly appropriate and logical. I also personally believe the above order to be appropriate for?corporate and industrial training and development?if?'Evaluation'?is taken to represent?executive or strategic assessment and decision-making, which is effectively at the pinnacle of the corporate intellect-set.
??????????? The inversion of Synthesis and Evaluation carries a risk unless it is properly qualified. This is because the highest skill level absolutely must involve?strategic evaluation; effective management - especially of large activities or organizations - relies on strategic evaluation. And clearly,?strategic evaluation is by implication included in the 'Evaluation' category.
??????????? I would also argue that in order to evaluate properly and strategically, we need first to have learned and experienced the execution of the strategies (ie, to have completed the synthesis step) that we intend to evaluate.
??????????? However, you should feel free to invert levels 5 and 6 if warranted by your own particular circumstances, particularly if your interpretation of 'Evaluation' is non-strategic, and not linked to decision-making. Changing the order of the levels is warranted if local circumstances alter the degree of difficulty. Remember, the taxonomy is based in the premise that the degree of difficulty increases through the levels - people need to learn to walk before they can run - it's that simple. So, if your situation causes 'Synthesis' to be more challenging than 'Evaluation', then change the order of the levels accordingly (i.e., invert 5 and 6 like Anderson and Krathwhol did), so that you train people in the correct order.
??????????? Bloom's Taxonomy second domain, the Affective Domain, was detailed by Bloom, Krathwhol and Masia in 1964 (Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Volume II, The Affective Domain. Bloom, Krathwhol and Masia.) Bloom's theory advocates this structure and sequence for developing attitude - also now commonly expressed in the modern field of personal development as 'beliefs'. Again, as with the other domains, the Affective Domain detail provides a framework for teaching, training, assessing and evaluating the effectiveness of training and lesson design and delivery, and also the retention by and affect upon the learner or trainee.
| affective domain | ||||
| ?level | category or 'level' | behaviour descriptions | examples of experience, or demonstration and evidence to be measured | 'key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level) |
| 1 | Receive | open to experience, willing to hear | listen to teacher or trainer, take interest in session or learning experience, take notes, turn up, make time for learning experience, participate passively | ask, listen, focus, attend, take part, discuss, acknowledge, hear, be open to, retain, follow, concentrate, read, do, feel |
| 2 | Respond | react and participate actively | participate actively in group discussion, active participation in activity, interest in outcomes, enthusiasm for action, question and probe ideas, suggest interpretation | react, respond, seek clarification, interpret, clarify, provide other references and examples, contribute, question, present, cite, become animated or excited, help team, write, perform |
| 3 | Value | attach values and express personal opinions | decide worth and relevance of ideas, experiences; accept or commit to particular stance or action | argue, challenge, debate, refute, confront, justify, persuade, criticize, |
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Source: http://eliudy.posterous.com/biological-science
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Study provides first direct evidence linking TB infection in cattle and local badger populations
Saturday, December 1, 2012Transmission of tuberculosis between cattle and badgers has been tracked at a local scale for the first time, using a combination of bacterial whole genome DNA sequencing and mathematical modelling. The findings highlight the potential for the use of next generation sequencing as a tool for disentangling the impact of badgers on TB outbreaks in cows at the farm level.
The role of badgers in the transmission of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) amongst cattle remains controversial, with the government's proposal to implement a widespread badger cull in England recently delayed and meeting with extensive criticism over the evidence base for this approach.
Previous studies have used lower resolution genetic typing of bacteria and information observed during an outbreak to identify links between cattle and badgers. However, until now, direct evidence of transmission of the bacteria between the two hosts at the farm scale has been lacking.
In this study, researchers made use of advances in genetic technologies to sequence whole genomes of bacteria that had been isolated from twenty six cows and four badgers from a group of neighbouring farms in Northern Ireland over a decade long history of repeated bTB outbreaks. This approach enabled the team to retrospectively trace changes in the bacteria's DNA as it passed from animal to animal.
The findings reveal that the bacteria isolated from badgers and cattle were extremely closely related, with often indistinguishable bacterial types obtained from badgers and nearby cattle farms. Moreover, the bacteria isolated from the two species were more closely related to each other than they were to farms even a few kilometers away.
"This study provides the first direct evidence of the close relationship between tuberculosis infections in cows and local badgers, at a very local scale," explains Prof. Rowland Kao, a Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellow who led the study jointly conducted by the University of Glasgow and the Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI) in Northern Ireland. "However, only with a larger study might we be able to quantify the extent and direction of transmission between cattle and badgers and reliably inform disease control policies."
The mathematical models used in this study show that different herd outbreaks were usually characterised by genetically distinct groups of bacteria, while bacteria from within single outbreaks were usually closely related, highlighting the potential to use of next generation sequencing for tracking spread of the bacteria from herd to herd.
Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an important disease of both livestock and wildlife with severe impacts on animal health and subsequent economic consequences. Although the disease in cattle is caused by a different bacteria from human disease, Mycobacterium bovis rather than Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M. bovis is believed to have been a major historical contributor to human cases of TB worldwide and remains a health concern in both developed and developing countries.
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Wellcome Trust: http://www.wellcome.ac.uk
Thanks to Wellcome Trust for this article.
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Freebies attached to full-price gift cards are abundant during the holidays. Now is a good time to stock up on gift cards, both for you and for others.?
This 2009 file photo shows a gift card kiosk in New York. New federal rules for gift cards mean user have longer to use them and don't face as many costs up front. Many restaurants and retailers offer 'bonus' gift cards during the holidays, so now is a good time to stock up if you visit any one place frequently.
Mark Lennihan/AP/File
EnlargeThe two best ways to find gift cards for less than they?re worth is to buy?discounted gift cards?from online exchanges or to buy full-price gift cards that come with freebies.
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The latter offer only comes around during the holidays, so now?s the time to stock up for yourself if you frequent any of these restaurants or shops. For example, buying a $50 gift card that comes with a $15 freebie is like paying $50 for $65 of goods. So if you spend the gift card and freebie yourself, you save up to 30 percent ? or more if you?re buying sale- or clearance-priced items.
If you don?t frequent these places, though, that savings may not be worth it because most of these freebies expire within three months of the new year. Buy if you?re shopping for anyone who likes these restaurants and stores, there?s no reason to pass up what is essentially free currency ? whether you enjoy the freebie yourself or pass it on to the gift recipient.
Applebee?s
Benihana
Black Angus Steakhouse
Bonefish Grill
Champps Americana Restaurant
Fox Restaurant Concepts
Hoss?s Steak and Sea House
Olive Garden Italian Restaurant
On The Border Mexican Grill & Cantina
RA Sushi Bar Restaurant
Ruby Tuesday
Stir Crazy Fresh Asian Grill
Texas Roadhouse
Tony Roma?s
Uno Chicago Grill
Barnes & Noble
Brunswick Bowling
DSW Shoes
Godiva Chocolatier
L.L. Bean
Victoria?s Secret
Karla Bowsher covers consumer, retail, and health issues?for?Money Talks News, a consumer/personal finance TV news feature that airs in about 80 cities as well as around the Web. This column first appeared in Money Talks News.
Source: http://rss.csmonitor.com/~r/feeds/csm/~3/gRlYSykXQwA/Tis-the-season-for-free-gift-cards
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Treatment centers are most likely the best location in which you can treat such a severe problem. Positioning your self in a controlled atmosphere can assist you to relieve the unpleasant feelings. Not only that, you are going to also be absolutely secure by any kind of harming diseases that may develop. Each of the drug addiction withdrawals will certainly happen eventually. Addicts have a tendency to waste their cash for the substance that they are abusing, and eventually they will likely not be able to afford the next dope. This can lead to detrimental results, sometimes even threatening for the people around them.
Addicted individuals under the effects of drugs can possibly harm others. The reason is the fact that they are unrestrainable and are generally prepared to do everything they can to get some more of opioid. This might ideally lead to abandonment along with other regretful incidents, since many people choose not to cope with that behavior. For that reason, you should always attempt to eradicate your own dependency as quickly as possible. The particular withdrawals from drug addiction will certainly be detrimental to your system and brain, but they will also have an impact on the people you love also.
In case you seek to eradicate your dependency, you should be ready. Essentially, you have to seek the help of your family, because without having it, your motivation will probably rapidly wane. There is nothing at all quick about this process, thus you must spend lots of time and energy in it. Nevertheless, by now, it is likely you have realized that it is the only way out. Because of that, you shouldn't think twice when it comes to solving your trouble.
A therapy center is the ideal location to deal with a problem as severe as an dependancy. Don't try to relieve the substance abuse withdrawals on your own, as you will probably fail. Your exclusive target must be to look for expert support. This is certainly something that you, as well as your loved ones need desperately. If you choose to postpone the required therapy, you are likely to only allow it to become even worse. At some time, all your family members will most likely choose to abandon you. Addicts constantly experience joblessness as well. This is because they are not able to complete simple duties without being underneath the impacts of drugs.
Source: http://healthandfitnessupdates.blogspot.com/2012/11/going-through-drug-abuse-withdrawals.html
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It took a little longer than some of those other cases, but Twelve South's BookBook for iPhone 5 is now shipping en masse. Some of those who pre-ordered began receiving their units as early as last week, but if you missed that wave, there's no need to gesture for the panic button. The outfit's newest wallet / iPhone case is actually more than just a resized version of the prior one; indeed, it finally figured out how to add a rear camera hole without worry of flash echo, and there's a new snap-in mechanism that holds your phone in place. The clever exterior remains largely the same, and there's still room for your most important IDs and credit cards as you flip it open. We were pretty big fans of the prior build, but the addition of the camera hole makes this one a no-brainer for fans of the style. The gallery below is completely free to peruse -- those who hit the source link, however, will be asked to fork over $59.99 to get one of their own.
Filed under: Peripherals, Mobile, Apple
Source: Twelve South
Source: http://www.engadget.com/2012/12/01/bookbook-iphone-5-now-shipping-available-hands-on/
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